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Cost-effectiveness of full medicare coverage of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors for beneficiaries with diabetesBACKGROUND: Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors slow renal disease progression and reduce cardiac morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes. Patients' out-of-pocket costs pose a barrier to using this effective therapy. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the cost-effectiveness to Medicare of first-dollar coverage (no cost sharing) of ACE inhibitors for beneficiaries with diabetes. DESIGN: Markov model with costs and benefits discounted at 3%. DATA SOURCES: Published literature and Medicare claims data. TARGET POPULATION: 65-year-old Medicare beneficiary with diabetes. TIME HORIZON: Lifetime. PERSPECTIVE: Medicare and societal. INTERVENTIONS: We evaluated Medicare first-dollar coverage of ACE inhibitors compared with current practice (no coverage) and the new Medicare drug benefit. OUTCOME MEASURES: Costs (2003 U.S. dollars), quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), life-years, and incremental cost-effectiveness. RESULTS OF BASE-CASE ANALYSIS: Compared with current practice, first-dollar coverage of ACE inhibitors saved both lives and money (0.23 QALYs gained and 1606 USD saved per Medicare beneficiary). Compared with the new Medicare drug benefit, first-dollar coverage remained a dominant strategy (0.15 QALYs gained, 922 USD saved). RESULTS OF SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS: Results were most sensitive to our estimate of increase in ACE inhibitor use; however, if ACE inhibitor use increased by only 7.2% (from 40% to 47.2%), first-dollar coverage would remain life-saving at no net cost to Medicare. In analyses conducted from the societal perspective, benefits were similar and cost savings were larger. LIMITATIONS: Results depend on accuracy of the underlying data and assumptions. The effect of more generous drug coverage on medication adherence is uncertain. CONCLUSIONS: Medicare first-dollar coverage of ACE inhibitors for beneficiaries with diabetes appears to extend life and reduce Medicare program costs. A reduction in program costs may result in more money to spend on other health care needs of the elderly.
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Frequency and Predictors of Self-Reported Hypoglycemia in Insulin-Treated DiabetesAIMS: Hypoglycemia is a limiting factor for achieving stringent glycemic control in diabetes. This study analyzes the frequency and predictors of hypoglycemia in insulin-treated diabetes in an ambulatory setting. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed to study self-monitored blood glucose (SMBG) data for 3 months prior to a patient's HbA1c test. RESULTS: Hypoglycemia occurred more frequently in type 1 than in type 2 diabetes; however, 19% of type 2 diabetes patients did experience at least one episode of severe hypoglycemia. For type 1 diabetes, hypoglycemia had a positive association with glycemic variability and duration of diabetes and a negative association with HbA1c and lowest blood glucose (BG). For type 2 diabetes, a positive association was noted with glycemic variability and a negative association with age and lowest BG. CONCLUSIONS: Delineating factors predisposing to hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetes is difficult. Lower HbA1c is a potential predictor of hypoglycemia in type 1 but not in type 2 diabetes. Longer duration of diabetes for type 1 and younger age for type 2 are associated with more hypoglycemia. Glycemic variability portends increased risk for hypoglycemia and should be a focus of further research.
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Nonenzymatic glycosylation of erythrocyte membrane proteins. Relevance to diabetesNonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins of the erythrocyte membrane was determined by incubating erythrocyte ghosts with [3H]borohydride. The incorporation of tritium into protein provides a reliable assay of ketoamine linkages. The membrane proteins from 18 patients with diabetes incorporated twice as much radioactivity as membrane proteins from normal erythrocytes. After acid hydrolysis, amino acid analysis showed that the majority of radioactivity was localized to glucosyllysine. Autoradiograms showed that all of the major proteins of the erythrocyte membrane, separated by electrophoresis on sodium dodecyl sulfate gels, contained ketoamine linkages. No protein bands in either normal or diabetic erythrocytes showed significant preferential labeling. Erythrocyte membranes from three patients with hemolytic anemia showed reduced incorporation of tritium from [3H]-borohydride, indicating decreased nonenzymatic glycosylation. Two patients with diabetes and hemolytic anemia had incorporation of radioactivity similar to that of normal individuals. In these groups of patients the incorporation of tritium into erythrocyte membrane proteins correlated with levels of hemoglobin AIc. Thus the modification of membrane proteins like that of hemoglobin depends on blood glucose levels as well as erythrocyte age. These studies show that the enhanced nonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins in diabetics extends beyond hemoglobin to the proteins of the erythrocyte membrane and probably affects other proteins that have slow turnover and are exposed to high concentrations of glucose.
